5 - Surface & Stormwater Management
Golf courses are typically large properties ranging in size from 60 to 200 acres and are but one link in a stormwater management chain. Generally, a quantity of stormwater enters the golf course area, supplemented by what falls on the golf course property, and then the stormwater leaves the golf course. Golf courses are realistically capable of having only a small impact on major stormwater flow. That impact should be to add only small increments of water over a given period of time. Engineers call this function “detention.”
When golf courses are designed and built, their drainage capability concept is guided by an average rainfall event of a given frequency. For example, typically, a golf course drainage system is designed to detain a two- or five-year rain event. In other words, when that rain event happens, the golf course will be able to be reasonably drained in a matter of hours, as excess water not absorbed by the soil flows through the drainage system, is temporarily held, and finally leaves the property. In some instances, golf courses and other recreational facilities are mandated to be designed to handle a 20-, 50- or 100-year rain event, which means the golf course must detain more water for perhaps a longer period of time. This ability to detain large amounts of water requires accurate engineering and extensive construction to prevent physical or financial damage to the facility.
Stormwater Management BMPs are intended to prolong the detention process as long as practical, harvest as much of the stormwater in surface or underground storage as reasonable, and to improve the quality of water leaving the property when possible.
Natural Systems to Improve Stormwater Treatment:
When the golf course is properly designed, rain and runoff captured in water hazards and stormwater ponds may provide most or all of the supplemental water necessary for irrigation under normal conditions, though backup sources may be needed during drought conditions.
If possible, construct ponds in a series, or “train”, to treat stormwater/site runoff. The first pond will catch the “first flush”, the second will provide additional filtering and the third will filter and serve as a primary withdrawal pond for irrigation; infiltrating the first inch of stormwater helps to prevent water quality impacts.
Capture systems should be considered part of the overall treatment.
Stormwater capture is desirable where the lowest quality of water is needed to conserve potable water, maintain hydrologic balance, and improve water treatment.
A full discussion of stormwater management recommendations is beyond the scope of this guide. For specific BMPs related to stormwater quality reference the DEEP 2004 Connecticut Stormwater Quality Manual: https://portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Water-Regulating-and-Discharges/Stormwater/Stormwater-Manual
Best Management Practices
Install berms and swales to capture pollutants and sediments from runoff before it enters the irrigation storage pond.
Monitor pond water level for water loss (seepage) to underground systems. If seepage is occurring, it may be necessary to line or seal the pond or install pumps to relocate water.
Install water-intake systems that use horizontal wells placed in the subsoil below the storage basin; use a post pump to filter particulate matter.
A backup source of water should be incorporated into the management plan.
Inspect irrigation pumps, filtration systems, conveyances and control devices to prevent/correct system issues.
Computerizing the irrigation management system not only saves labor, but is also more efficient and flexible. Golf course irrigation systems can be linked to a golf course superintendent’s home or business computer, allowing the system to be remotely monitored and shut off. Often weather changes occur rapidly in the summer months, and rainstorms occur during times when irrigation managers are not on-site. In the event that an irrigation cycle is taking place and a storm occurs, a computerized rain gage shut off would allow the irrigation system to shut down automatically. By using a computerized system, the irrigation manager has the ability to set the precipitation rate at which the system automatically shuts off.
The course site plan should maintain the natural wetland and watercourse systems and buffers, plus locate necessary stormwater management structures to upland areas. This helps maintain the natural drainage patterns and allows for recharge of runoff. A series or train of stormwater diversions, swales and basins can be designed to collect stormwater runoff for use in supplementing irrigation.
Avoid the direct discharge of stormwater runoff from parking lots, service areas, buildings and roadways directly into wetlands and watercourses. Control quality of surface runoff with appropriate filtration practices such as grassy swales, filter strips and constructed wetlands.
Stormwater management on a golf course includes storing irrigation water, controlling erosion and sediment, enhancing wildlife habitat, removing waterborne pollutants, controlling the amount and rate of water leaving the course, and addressing aesthetic and playability concerns.
Regulatory Considerations
Course owners and superintendents should investigate regulatory requirements that apply to the golf facility to protect surface and groundwater quality. Contact DEEP to arrange a pre-application meeting to discuss permitting requirements for an existing or proposed golf course irrigation system. It is likely that most golf course irrigation systems are subject to regulation, since any withdrawal (or combination of withdrawals) of surface or ground water in excess of 50,000 gallons in any twenty-four-hour period requires a water diversion permit. A pre-application meeting should expedite the permit process by allowing for discussion of alternative water sources and identification of significant environmental issues.
Best Management Practices
Aquatic management of plants may be regulated under construction permitting and regulatory licensing requirements. Consult with federal, state, and local water management agencies before managing golf course lakes and wetland areas. https://www.gcsaa.org/uploadedfiles/Environment/Get-Started/BMPs/Best-management-practices-for-golf-course-water-use-(CT).pdf
Consult with federal, state, and local water management agencies, and/or consult an approved management plan before performing cultural practices: fertilization, installation of plants, hand removal of plants, or mechanical harvesting.
The introduction of aquatic triploid grass carp, biological controls, aeration, and chemical controls (herbicide/algaecide) must be approved and monitored according to permit and licensing protocols and compliance.
The disposal of sediments from surface water ponds (stormwater detention) may be subject to regulation. Typical timeframe for water usage on golf course is April 1 to October 31. https://www.gcsaa.org/uploadedfiles/Environment/Get-Started/BMPs/Best-management-practices-for-golf-course-water-use-(CT).pdf
Golf course management may be affected by Total Maximum Daily Loading (TMDL), mitigation, and watershed basin management action plans (BMAP).
Wetlands are protected areas; in Connecticut all wetlands are considered High Quality Waters per Water Quality Standards; consult with DEEP and federal agencies before altering natural aquatic areas.
Constructed wetlands should have an impervious bottom to prevent groundwater contamination.
Studies of water supplies are needed for irrigation systems, including studies of waterbodies or flows on, near, and under the property to properly design a course’s stormwater system and water features to protect water resources.
Use a meter at each source of water withdrawal. Metering of the sources should be at the discharge side of the source pumps prior to any off-take piping
Choose a meter that provides both a numeric cumulative volume reading and an instantaneous flow reading. This will enable the user to gage consumption and obtain a quick estimation of the flow rate.
At least once a year, prior to the start of the irrigation season, calibrate meters in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations.
Water Quality Protection
An aquatic plant management strategy should address the intended uses of the waterbody to maintain water quality. Proper documentation includes the site’s physical attributes and location, the presence of invasive or weedy species, aesthetics, watershed and groundwater assessments, and other environmental considerations.
Only licensed individuals or contractors should be allowed to select and apply aquatic pesticides. Utilize physical or other controls first under a proper IPM program; pesticides should be used as a last resort. Use DEEP Bulletin 34 entitled 2002 Connecticut Guidelines for Soil Erosion and Sediment Control as the standard for BMPs for soil erosion and sediment control: https://portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Water/Soil-Erosion-and-Sediment-Control-Guidelines/Guidelines-for-Soil-Erosion-and-Sediment-Control
References for Invasive Aquatic Plants in Connecticut:
https://portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Invasive-Species/Invasive-Species
Best Management Practices
Accommodate natural lake processes in the construction of lakes and ponds; include herbaceous and woody vegetation and emergent and submergent shoreline plants to reduce operational costs.
Use integrated pest management (IPM) strategies and native or naturalized vegetation wherever practical.
Plant grasses, other herbaceous vegetation and woody vegetation in buffer strips where existing vegetation is lacking. Plants included in a riparian buffer zone restoration or an overall habitat enhancement plan should be native and non-invasive. (DEP Non-Native Invasive & Potentially Invasive Vascular Plants in CT, March 2001)
Select some woody vegetation to provide shade, especially along the south side of wide sections of a watercourse or water body, to provide shading, cool water temperatures and to maintain suitable dissolved oxygen levels.
Apply appropriate herbicides to minimize damage to non-target littoral plantings.
Maintain a narrow band of open water at the pond edge to control the expansion of plants into more desirable littoral plantings.
Use appropriate aquatic herbicides to prevent turfgrass injury and to protect water quality and wildlife habitat.
Irrigation should not directly strike or run off to waterbodies, and no-fertilization buffers should be maintained along water edges.
As a general practice, keep all chemical applications 10 to 15 feet away from the water’s edge when using rotary spreaders and/or boom sprayer applications
Outline goals and priorities to guide the development of the BMP necessary to support the lake/aquatic management plan.
Superintendents should monitor designated waters in their area for the persistence of toxic herbicides and algaecides in the environment.
Secondary environmental effects on surface water and groundwater from the chemical control of vegetation should be monitored and recorded.
Apply fertilizer and reclaimed (reuse) irrigation/fertigation appropriately to avoid surface water and groundwater contamination.
If possible, avoid the use of copper, at least for natural water systems. Apply copper products per label instructions to reduce the risk of impairing water quality and causing negative biological impacts.
Identify position of property in relation to its watershed. https://portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Water/Watershed-Management/CTs-Watershed-Management-Program
Identify overall goals and validate concerns of the local watershed.
Identify surface water and flow patterns.
Where a desired buffer width cannot be met due to course layout, prevent runoff from entering the water body at that location by diverting it to adjacent areas where adequately wide buffers can be developed and maintained. Methods of diversion can include shallow swales, low berms, and grading of fairway slopes away from stream banks.
Indicate stormwater flow as well as existing and potential holding capacity.
Indicate impervious surfaces, such as buildings, parking lots, or pathways.
Indicate major drainages and catch basins that connect to local surface water bodies.
Identify and understand depth to water tables and soil types.
Locate and protect wellheads.
Refer to the Water Quality Monitoring and Management Section for additional information.
Aquatic Plants
Phytoplankton, which give water its green appearance, provide the base for the food chain in ponds. Tiny animals called zooplankton use phytoplankton as a food source. Large aquatic plants (aquatic macrophytes) can grow rooted to the bottom and supported by the water (submersed plants), rooted to the bottom or shoreline and extended above the water surface (immersed plants), rooted to the bottom with their leaves floating on the water surface (floating-leaved plants), or free-floating on the water surface (floating plants). Different types of aquatic macrophytes have different functions in ponds.
Plant life growing on littoral shelves may help to protect receiving waters from the pollutants present in surface water runoff, and a littoral shelf is often required in permitted surface water-retention ponds. Floating plants suppress phytoplankton because they absorb nutrients from the pond water and create shade.
Ponds may be constructed on golf courses strictly as water hazards or for landscape purposes, but they often have the primary purpose of drainage and stormwater management and are also often a source of irrigation water. The use of aquatic plants to improve the appearance of a pond (aquascaping) can be included as part of the overall landscape design.
Best Management Practices
Properly designed ponds with a narrow fringe of vegetation along the edge are more resistant to problems than those with highly maintained turf.
In ponds with littoral plantings, problem plants should be selectively controlled without damaging littoral shelves.
Encourage clumps of native emergent vegetation at the shoreline.
A comprehensive lake management plan should include strategies to control the growth of nuisance vegetation that can negatively affect a pond’s water quality and treatment capacity.
Frequently remove filamentous algae by hand and/or frequently apply algaecide to small areas of algae (spot treatment).
To reduce the risk of oxygen depletion, use an algaecide containing hydrogen peroxide instead of one with copper or endothall.
Ideally, littoral zones should have a slope of about 1 foot vertical to 6-10 foot horizontal to provide the best substrate for aquatic plant growth.
Triploid grass carp (with a permit) are sometimes used as a biological control for aquatic plants.
Human Health Concerns
Be sure to address areas where standing water may provide habitat for nuisance organisms.
The use of pesticides should be part of an overall IPM strategy that includes biological controls, cultural methods, pest monitoring, and other applicable practices.
Best Management Practices
Use IPM principles to address insects that may pose a hazard to human health.
Drain areas of standing water during wet seasons to reduce insect populations.
Use Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) products according to label directions to manage waterborne insect larvae.
Floodplain Restoration
Land use decisions and engineering standards must be based on the latest research science available. Reestablishment of natural water systems helps mitigate flooding and control stormwater. Address high sediment and nutrient loads and vertical and lateral stream migration causing unstable banks, flooding, and reductions in groundwater recharge.
Best Management Practices
Install stream buffers to restore natural water flows and flooding controls.
Install buffers in play areas to stabilize and restore natural areas that will attract wildlife species.
Install detention basins to store water and reduce flooding at peak flows.
Stormwater, Ponds, and Lakes
Stormwater is the conveying force behind what is called nonpoint source pollution. Nonpoint pollution, which is both natural and caused by humans, comes not from a pipe from a factory or sewage treatment plant, but from daily activity. Pollutants commonly found in stormwater include the microscopic wear products of brake linings and tires; oil; shingle particles washed off roofs; soap, dirt, and worn paint particles from car washing; leaves and grass clippings; pet and wildlife wastes; lawn, commercial, and agricultural fertilizers; and pesticides.
Stormwater treatment is best accomplished by a treatment train approach, in which water is conveyed from one treatment to another by conveyances that themselves contribute to the treatment. Source controls are the first car on the BMP treatment train. They help to prevent the generation of stormwater or introduction of pollutants into stormwater. The most effective method of stormwater treatment is not to generate stormwater in the first place, or to remove it as it is generated.
Most golf courses plan their lakes and water hazards to be a part of the stormwater control and treatment system. However, natural waters of the state cannot be considered treatment systems and must be protected. Lakes and ponds may also be used as a source of irrigation water. It is important to consider these functions when designing and constructing ponds. Peninsular projections and long, narrow fingers may prevent mixing. Ponds that are too shallow may reach high temperatures, leading to low oxygen levels and promoting algal growth and excess sedimentation.
Best Management Practices
Institute buffers and special management zones; install swales and slight berms with a natural appearance where appropriate around the water’s edge, along with buffer strips, to slow and infiltrate water and trap pollutants in the soil, where they can be naturally destroyed by soil organisms.
Design stormwater treatment trains to direct stormwater across vegetated filter strips (such as turfgrass), through a swale into a wet detention pond, and then out through another swale to a constructed wetland system.
Eliminate or minimize directly connected impervious areas.
Use depressed landscape islands in parking lots to catch, filter, and infiltrate water, instead of letting it run off. When hard rains occur, an elevated stormwater drain inlet allows the island to hold the treatment volume and settle out sediments, while allowing the overflow to drain away.
Ensure that no discharges from pipes go directly to water. Disconnect runoff from gutters and roof drains from impervious areas, so that it flows onto permeable areas that allow the water to infiltrate near the point of generation.
Consider using pervious pavers for walkways, such as brick or concrete pavers separated by sand and planted with grass; and minimize use of curbing on parking areas. Where reduction is difficult, large parking areas can incorporate landscaped areas to help maintain natural recharge. Special high-permeability concrete is available for cart paths or parking lots. Pervious overflow parking should be used to accommodate seasonal parking. https://www.gcsaa.org/uploadedfiles/Environment/Get-Started/BMPs/Best-management-practices-for-golf-course-water-use-(CT).pdf
Golf course stormwater management should include “natural systems engineering” or “soft engineering” approaches that maximize the use of natural systems to treat water. Ideally buffers should be planted with native species to provide water quality benefits, pleasing aesthetics, and habitat/food sources for wildlife.
Discharge or divert surface runoff onto wide, relatively flat vegetated areas to promote infiltration and ground water recharge.
A full discussion of stormwater management recommendations is beyond the scope of this report. For specific BMPs related to stormwater quality see the 2004 Connecticut Stormwater Quality Manual by the CT DEP.
